Transitional words and phrases are essential to maintain the flow and
coherence of a paragraph. They are the links between ideas. Transitions are
phrases or words used to connect one idea to the next . Besides, transitions
that compare, contrast, illustrate, add or show cause and effect build logical
bridges. The ideas, thus expressed in the paragraph, flow smoothly from one to
the other in a logical sequence. This helps the reader to understand the
paragraph. Two sentences become a sentence, using transitions words or phrases
that link sentences and paragraphs together smoothly so that there are no
abrupt jumps or breaks between ideas. Transitions are used by the writer to
help the reader progress from one significant idea to the next transitions also
show the relationship within a paragraph (or within a sentence) between the
main idea and the support the writer gives for those ideas. Different
transitions do different things.
B- what is the
function of transitions?
Transition words are used to link ideas within sentences, and sentences within paragraphs. Used correctly, transition words make writing easier to understand and more mature.
Transitions can be used in diverse circumstances. A transition can be a word, a
phrase or even an entire paragraph. The function of a transition is the same in
each case: it summarizes the content of the preceding paragraph or section and
it helps the reader anticipate what’s to come in the next paragraph.
However, the major function is not just to embellish one’s writing by
making it read or sound better; these are words which serve the function of
presenting the ideas in such a way that help the readers react in particular
ways to the ideas presented. They play a very important part in helping
the readers see the logical sequence of the idea.
To put it clear, transition words, such as
“although,” “however,” and “for example,” play an important role in writing.
They tie two thoughts together and add fluency to writing. Transition words are
used in a sentence to connect two ideas. They join clauses or sentences
together to show a difference or a connection.
Transition words are used in a sentence to connect two ideas. They join
clauses or sentences together to show a difference or a connection.
C-What are the most commonly used transitional words and phrases?
Writing is simply a matter of expressing ideas, but as we all know, it’s
not so simple after all. One challenge is to coherently connect those ideas. It
is through transitional words that we can do that. These words and phrases can
be used within a sentence as well as at the beginning. The most commonly used transitional words and phrases
are:
To give examples
To add information
To compare or contrast
To show time
To emphasize
To show sequence
To summarize
for example for
instance namely
and next in addition
in contrast by comparison on the other hand
finally after before
for these reasons obviously without a doubt
first (second, third, etc.) next at the same time
therefore thus in conclusion
Some examples:
Example 1:
We arrived late at the movie; indeed, we missed the
first thirty minutes.
Indeed is a transition word. It clarifies how late we arrived at the
movie.
Example 2:
We arrived late at the movie; however we missed the
first thirty minutes.
However is the transition word in the second example, but doesn’t make
sense as it is used in the sentence.
However is a transition word that shows
contrast, yet there is no contrast to be made. Both clauses are about being
late to the movie. A better sentence with however would be:
Example 3:
We left early to go to the movie; however, we still
missed the first thirty minutes.
In Example 3, however shows the contrast between leaving early and still
missing the beginning of the movie.
Example 4: We arrived
late at the movie, so we didn’t understand the end.
In Example 4, the word so connects two clauses to
show a result. It was because we were late that we didn’t understand the
ending. The meaning of the two clauses is clearer than if each stood alone:
Example 5:
We arrived late at the movie. We didn’t understand the ending.
In Example 5, the two ideas are separate. There is no connection with
arriving late and not understanding the movie. Instead, it appears that not
understanding the ending has nothing to do with arriving late.
Punctuation is
the system of signs or symbols given to a reader to show how a sentence is
constructed and how it should be read.
Sentences are the building blocks used to construct written accounts.
They are complete statements. Punctuation shows how the sentence should
be read and makes the meaning clear. Punctuation marks are symbols that indicate
the structure and organization of written language. There are many punctuation
marks in the English language. Punctuation marks help guide your writing and
sentences. They can show pauses, strong feeling of expression, statement,
command, questioning and much more. Some common punctuation marks include;
periods, question marks, quotation marks, exclamation marks, colons,
semi-colons, apostrophes, dashes, and much more.
b-Importance of
punctuation
Some believe that punctuation is there to complicate matters.
In fact, when talking aloud, we are able to convey meaning using intonation,
voice patterns and body language also – along with answering any questions
which might come from listeners, to explain anything which is unclear. When
reading, we do not have these handy tools – and rely completely on a set of
established marks (punctuation) to help us to know what was meant, so that
texts can be interpreted only in the way which was intended by the writer.
When we speak, we can pause or emphasize certain words and
phrases to help people understand what we are saying. In our writing,
We use punctuation to show pauses and emphasis.
Punctuation marks help the reader understand what we mean.
A punctuation mark is a mark, or sign, used in writing to divide
texts into phrases and sentences and make the meaning clear.
In this session, we will look at some common punctuation marks and mistakes.
You will see examples of what happens if you omit or misuse some common
punctuation marks.
Missing punctuation leads to much ambiguity, meaning that we
have to ask the writer what was meant, rather than it being crystal clear in
the first place. We can say that punctuation helps avoid confusion. Get the
punctuation right and the message will be clear.
Here is a classic
illustration of altering punctuation to change meaning:
A woman without her man
is nothing.
A woman: without
her, man is nothing.
Another example
is:
The man dropped the
bullet in his mouth.
The man dropped, the bullet in his
mouth.
Here
is another funny example:
1. It is time to eat David!
2.
It is time to eat, David! 1. In the first sentence, it sounds like
we are going to eat David for lunch!
2. The comma in the second sentenceshows the writer that we are
Actually informing David that
it is time to eat. Here the comma saves
David's
life.
Many people do not know the rules which help with punctuation; they simply use
‘feelings’ about what ‘sounds right’.
Why should
you use punctuation in your writing? The simple answer is that it helps your
reader – who is possibly also your marker – to understand your message easily.
When you speak, you frequently pause, your voice rises or drops and often your
face and hands add non-verbal information through “body language”; all this
assists in communicating your message clearly. In writing you have to remember
that the readers have only what is on the paper or screen in order to
understand your message. Punctuation basically helps to indicate the pauses,
rises and falls etc. which are important for understanding.
Different
punctuation marks are used in different situations but all help with conveying
your message with clarity. It is therefore essential, in academic writing in
particular, to use punctuation accurately. Your tutors will expect this and you
will lose marks for not doing so. On the other hand, correctly used punctuation
can help to strengthen your arguments
and improve
marks. The alphabetic list below will introduce the main punctuation marks used
in writing in general, not just academic writing .All punctuation marks, “Apostrophes” ,
commas, colons , semi-colons,….etc are covered in greater depth in the
following section.)
c-Types of punctuation
marks:
Punctuationmark
When to use it
For example
Apostrophe ’
i) to show that something
belongs to someone or
something (possession)
ii) to show letters are
missing
in words (omission)
The boy’s book. This is Alec’s pen. The
students’ names. The children’s toys. That means you use ’s for singular
ands’ for
plural unless the plural does not end in an
s, as in the case of ‘children’.
you’re = you
are;I’m = I am; it’s = it is; who’s =
who is; don’t = do not
BUT
remember that you don’t use short forms like
‘don’t’ in academic writing. Always use the full forms such as do not, who
is, it isetc.
Brackets ( )
used in pairs around groups of words
introducing an extra idea e.g. an explanation or afterthought to be kept
separate from the rest of the sentence. A sentence should still make complete
sense without the
words in brackets.
He always hands
in his work on time (he is a well organised student) after carefully checking
it.
Capital letter
A
i) at the beginning of a
sentence
ii) for names
Snow continued
to fall. Finally a decision was taken to shut the campus.
Alice Smith; Hull; The Bible; The Thames;
The Midwifery
Council
Colon:
i) to introduce something that
is to follow, which may be a
list
ii) to introduce the second half of a sentence when
it explains or expands on the first half
Students are expected to carry out a range of
activities: attend lectures, take part in tutorials, produce written work,
meet deadlines for assignments and sit
examinations.
Mediterranean cookery is considered healthy:
it uses olive oil, fresh vegetables
and fish.
Comma,
i) to mark
a brief pause within a sentence, such as where you would naturally pause if
you were speaking
ii) to separate words in
a list in a sentence (but do not put a
comma
before “and” or “or”)
We cannot help him, unless he comes to see
us.
The picnic included sandwiches, salad,
crisps, cakes and fruit.
Dash–
i) to create a pause for dramatic
effect, introducing
something surprising or unexpected
ii)used in pairs in a
similar way to brackets
I
looked at the mark for my last essay and
it
was – a first.
I hear
she’s a good pianist – I myself have never heard her – but she’s shy about
playing in public.
Exclamation
Mark!
at the end of an exclamation –
an expression of emotion such
as surprise, anger, delight etc.
It’s just amazing! Hurry up!
BUT since academic writing should be
impersonal and objective, not emotional, you will not be likely to use
exclamation marks in your academic work
Full stop.
i) at the end of a sentence
ii) to show an abbreviation
(shortening)
She finally found the
correct book.
etc.e.g.Mr.B.B.C.
Hyphen -
to join two words together to
make a compound word
Take-away, full-time
Question
mark?
at the end of a sentence which
asks a direct question.
How
did this happen?
Where
is the Language Learning Centre?
Quotation
marks (also
called speech
marks or
inverted
commas)
“ ”or ‘ ’
i)to show that you are using
someone else’s words
ii) around words actually
spoken
iii) around titles of books, films etc.
Brown
(2009) says “This indicates that
the
data should not be trusted.”
“Hello”,
she said.
“The Tempest” is a play
by William
Shakespeare.
Semi-colon;
i)to link two sentences and
turn them into a single
sentence when a full stop
would be too abrupt
He never took any exercise; consequently he
became very unfit.
The door burst open; a stranger walked in.
End
Punctuation
End Punctuation is the most
common punctuation in the English language. You must use end
punctuation at the end ofevery sentence to
avoid confusion.
The three most common ways to end a sentence are -period( . ) The
elephant is big.
End punctuation tells the
reader where each sentence ends. It also helps the reader understand the
writer's emotions about the subject. For example, an exclamation mark ( ! )
tells the reader that I am excited or yelling. Here is a paragraphwithoutend punctuation:
Do you like to sing My
mom and I sing in a choir that meets every Tuesday Last week we sang Christmas
carols at a nursing home The residents of the nursing home enjoyed our visit It
was fun Would you like to join us next Tuesday
You can see that it is
very difficult to read and make sense of the paragraph. Every sentence runs
straight into the next sentence. Here is the same paragraphwithend punctuation:
Do you like to sing? My
mom and I sing in a choir that meets every Tuesday. Last week, we sang
Christmas carols at a nursing home. The residents of the nursing home enjoyed
our visit! It was fun! Would you like to join us next Tuesday?
Now, you can see questions, statements, and
exclamations in the paragraph. You can see that the writer is excited about
singing and enjoyed singing for the residents of the nursing home. The writer
also asks if you like singing and would like to join their choir.
Incorrect uses of end punctuation
Using the wrong end
punctuation can cause confusion for the reader.
Consider these three sentences:
1. Richard wants to marry Rose. 2.
Richard wants to marry Rose! 3.
Richard wants to marry Rose?
The words of
each sentence are the same, but the end punctuation greatly changes the
meaning:
1. Richard wants to
marry Rose.
By using aperiod,
the writer is simplystating a fact. The
writer does not show any feelings about the situation. 2.
Richard wants to marry Rose!
With anexclamation
mark, the writer shows emotion about the situation. The writer is probably
excited. 3.
Richard wants to marry Rose?
By using aquestion
mark, the writer has turned the sentence into a question. The writer seemssurprised and is asking for clarification.
A final note about punctuation
These were just afewexamples of the importance of using
punctuation in our writing. It is important to use punctuation correctly to
help the reader understand our writing.Without punctuation, our writing would be a confusing mess!
These were examples of the importance of punctuation. Now that you know them,
it is time to practice!Read and do
exercises.
(2)-Capitalizationmarks
Capitalizationmeans using capital letters at
the beginning of certain words.In
this handout, you will study and review the main rules for using capital
letters. Study the following rules:
CAPITALIZATION
REVIEW
In this exercise youwill review the main rules for using capital
letters.
Study the rules and examples; then
work the “TRY IT’ section. The answer key is at the back of this packet.
The first word of every
sentence begins with a capital letter.
They soared above the
earth like birds.
Names
of persons are capitalized.
We shall meet Juan and
Mi Hye.
Initials used in names and abbreviations of
well known
organizations are capitalized.
Does this belong to T.R.
Johnson?
The P.T.A. meeting is
tonight.
The
word "I" is always capitalized.
Mostafa and I will do the job.
The
names of the months are capitalized.
He was born on January 1, 1951.
The names
of the days of the week are capitalized.
This class will meet on
Tuesday and Thursday.
The names of holidays are capitalized
.
Thanksgiving Day comes
in November.
The names of
countries, states, and cities are capitalized.
-The doctor was a native of Mexico.
-I have visited in Indiana, and Chicago, Illinois.
The names of streets and
avenues are capitalized.
-There are no business
buildings on Temple Street.
-Meet me at 212 Fifth Avenue.
The names
of particular buildings, mountains,
parks
and bodies of water are capitalized.
-We camped in the Yellowstone National Park.
-The Mississippi River enters the Gulf of Mexico at New Orleans.
Titles with names and
titles of books, songs
and newspapers are
capitalized.
Dr. and Mrs. Hill had dinner
with Captain Smith.
The name of the book
is The Old Man and the Sea.
Our national anthem is
“The Star Spangled Banner.”
Do you read The
Washington Post advertisements?
All the words in the
greeting and the first
word of the closing of letters are
capitalized.
Dear Mr. Arnaz,Dear Aunt Faye,
To Whom It May ConcernDear Sir:
Sincerely,Love,
*Examples of names, titles or
words which are not capitalized:
Titles:There are three presidents at the
conference.
Seasons:winter, spring, summer, autumn
General studies:history, art, science, etc.(except specific
studies or
languages:Latin, Algebra II)
(3) - Indentation
In the written form of many languages,
an indentation is an empty space at the beginning of a line to signal
the start of a new paragraph.
Here is an example of a letter that is not punctuated, capitalized or
indented.
dear parents,
you are invited by our local p.t.a. to attend a picnic at goldhead
park.it is the annual oakwood
elementary school get-together.
the picnic will be on saturday, june 6.please bring food for your family. drinks may
be bought at the park.
at three o’clock, superintendent james l. hanna will discuss the
building program.
please come!
sincerely,
ms. laverne howard
president, p.t.a.
Here is the same letter again, but with the right,
punctuation, capitalization and indentation:
Dear Parents,
You are invited by our local P.T.A.
to attend a picnic at
Goldhead Park.It is the annual Oakwood
Elementary School
get together.
The picnic will be on Saturday, June
6.Please bring
food for your family.Drinks may be bought at the park.
At three o’clock, Superintendent
James L. Hanna will
1. Johnny Pacheco has a creative talent as a
composer; ----, he is a successful arranger.
